Table 3 Summary of scientific evidence for the impact of phytosterols on carotenoid status and fat soluble vitamins

Impact of phytosterols on vitamin A and carotenoid status

Impact of phytosterols on other fat soluble vitamins

[25]

C, D2, D3, D5

Spread

Adults, 18–65

<8

1.5–3.3

3.5

↓ absolute and lipid standardized levels of α- and β-carotene and lycopene.

[178]

D1

Spread, Butter

Postmenopausal women aged 50–55

5.5–8.0

3.2-D1 in spread; 2.4-D1 in butter

Margarine intervention-6 wks; butter interventio-5 wks

↔ Serum retinol

↓ α- and β-carotene concentrations

↔ Serum vitamin D

↔ lipid standardized α-tocopherol

[181]

D

Spread

Adults

Moderately hypercholesterolemic

8

↔ retinol

↓ α- and β-carotenes

↔ vitamin D

↔ ratio of α-tocopherol to cholesterol

[62]

D1, D2

Spread

Adults

5.4–7.5

2.3-D1; 2.2-D2

8

↓ β-carotene

↔ β-carotene

↔ α-carotene with or without lipid adjustment

[19]

C2

Spread

Adults, aged 19–58

<7.5

0.9, 1.6 and 3.3

3.6

↓ α and β carotene and lycopene concentrations reduced

↔ lipid-adjusted carotene levels

↓ α-tocopherol concentrations reduced

↔ lipid standardized α tocopherol

[41]

D

Spread

Adults

Hypercholesterolemic

1 g 3x/d (2 different formulations) or 2 g 3x/d

8

↔ vitamin A

↔ vitamin D

[20]

C2, C3

Spread

Adults aged 18–62

<8

0.8

9

↓ lycopene

↔ α- and β-carotene

[76]

C, D

Spread

Adults, mean age 49

4.8–7.0

2.0

4

↔ retinol

↔ α carotene or lycopene concentrations, with or without lipid adjustment.

↓ β-carotene decreased after each intervention, but not when lipid adjusted

↔ vitamin D concentration with or without lipid adjustment.

[96]

D

Spread, Shortening

Adults aged 18–65

<6.5

2.5 g/d-lunch or in 3 doses of 0.4-breakfast, 0.8-lunch and 1.3-dinner

4

↔ retinol

↔ α-carotene

↓ lycopene and β-carotene after the 3x/d regime

↓ β-carotene by 1x/d regime

↔ in any of the lipid-adjusted concentrations

↓ α-tocophorol after both the 1x and 3x/d regime 1x/d regime, ↔ in lipid-adjusted concentrations

[137]

D

Spread

Children, aged 6

Healthy

1.5

12

↓ β-carotene with and without lipid standardization

↓ α-tocopherol but ↔ in lipid-adjusted concentration

[134]

D

Spread

24 children aged 3–13; 4 parents; 16 healthy family members

Familial hypercholesterolemia

2.2

12

↔ retinol

↓ α and β-carotenes with and without lipid-adjustment (measurements done only in children)

[39]

C

Spread

Adults 25–64

>5.8

1.5 or 3.0

24

↔ retinol, α-carotene or β-carotene

[170]

C

Spread, Salad Dressing

Healthy adults

3.0, 6.0 or 9.0

8

↓ α and trans β-carotene reduced in the 9.0 g/day group, but all carotenoid values remained within the normal range

All fat soluble vitamins remained within normal range after treatments

[38]

C

Spread

Adults, aged 21–75

3.4–5.0

1.1 or 2.2

5

↔ in serum retinol, zeaxanthin or cryptoxanthin

↓ trans β-carotene, α-carotene, lycopene and lutein all decreased

↓ lipid-adjusted trans β-carotene

↔ α- or γ-tocopherol, 25 hydroxyvitamin D or phylloquinone

[40]

C

Yogurt-drink

Adults, aged 33–69

Modertally hypercholesterolemic

1

4

↔ vitamin A

↔ vitamin E, ↑ vitamin D (probably as a result of increased skin synthesis of vitamin D due to the time of year)

[70]

C

Yogurt

Adults

Normocholesterolemic

3

4

↓ β-carotene

↑ lipid standardized tocopherol

[79]

C

Spread

Healthy adults

1.8

3

↔ vitamin A

↓ β-carotene

↔ vitamin E

[173]

C, D

Spread

Adults

Hypercholesterolemic

1.9-C 1.8-D

3

↔

↔

[81]

C

Adults aged 48

Normocholesterolemic and hypercholesterolemic

1.6

52

↓ lipid-adjusted α-and β-carotene

↔ lipid-adjusted fat soluble vitamin concentration

[71]

A2, C2

Vegetable oil, partly filled milk

Men aged 29

<5.2

2.2

1

↓ β-carotene bioavailability 57% with C2, 48% with A2; ↓ TRL-retinyl palmitate bioavailability 48% with C2, 32% with A2. No standardization to TAG because TRL-TAG pharmacokinetics were equivalent in all groups

↓ α-tocopherol bioavailability 27% with C2, no efffect with A2

[42]

A2

Vegetable oil, partly filled milk

Adults, aged 60

7.0

1.2 or 1.6

4 wk/period

↓ α- and β-carotene, lycopene, and lutein with 1.6 g dose only.

↔ lipid-adjusted α- and β-carotene, lycopene, β-cryptoxanthin, zeaxanthin with either dose.

↓ lipid-adjusted % change in lutein with 1.6 g

↓ α-tocopherol with both doses

↔ lipid-adjusted α-tocopherol with both doses