Dietary linoleic acid (en%) | Circulating linoleic acid (% total FA) | |||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
T1 (n = 211) | T2 (n = 211) | T3 (n = 211) | P-trenda | T1 (n = 211) | T2 (n = 211) | T3 (n = 211) | P-trenda | |
Median (range) | 3.9 (0.4–5.3) | 6.7 (5.4–8.0) | 9.6 (8.0–18.4) | 12.5 (6.0–14.4) | 16.0 (14.4–17.7) | 19.5 (17.7–25.7) | ||
Age (y) | 52.4 ± 9.0 | 52.8 ± 11.3 | 53.8 ± 10.6 | 0.18 | 53.8 ± 9.4 | 54.2 ± 11.2 | 50.9 ± 10.1 | 0.004 |
Men | 91 (43.1) | 80 (37.9) | 69 (32.7) | 0.09 | 76 (36.0) | 82 (38.9) | 82 (38.9) | 0.78 |
Body mass index (kg/m2) | 23.8 ± 6.5 | 25.0 ± 7.5 | 25.9 ± 6.7 | 0.002 | 24.4 ± 7.1 | 25.2 ± 7.4 | 25.0 ± 6.3 | 0.36 |
Obesity | 40 (19.0) | 47 (22.3) | 56 (26.5) | 0.17 | 40 (19.0) | 52 (24.6) | 51 (24.2) | 0.30 |
Waist circumference (cm) | 79.6 ± 12.3 | 80.2 ± 14.3 | 81.3 ± 12.1 | 0.20 | 80.8 ± 13.4 | 80.6 ± 13.5 | 79.6 ± 11.9 | 0.36 |
Locality (urban) | 71 (33.6) | 123 (58.3) | 131 (62.1) | < 0.001 | 107 (50.7) | 113 (53.6) | 105 (50.0) | 0.72 |
Education levelb | 0.12 | < 0.001 | ||||||
No school or primary | 94 (45.6) | 76 (36.4) | 77 (37.9) | 108 (51.9) | 78 (38.2) | 61 (29.6) | ||
Secondary or higher | 112 (54.4) | 133 (63.6) | 126 (62.1) | 100 (48.1) | 126 (61.8) | 145 (70.4) | ||
Smoking statusb | 0.008 | 0.010 | ||||||
Non-smoker | 84 (40.0) | 87 (41.2) | 113 (53.6) | 81 (38.4) | 92 (43.6) | 111 (52.9) | ||
Past or current smoker | 126 (60.0) | 124 (58.8) | 98 (46.4) | 130 (61.6) | 119 (56.4) | 99 (47.1) | ||
Physical activityb | < 0.001 | 0.006 | ||||||
Low | 1 (0.5) | 3 (1.5) | 1 (0.5) | 1 (0.5) | 2 (1.0) | 2 (1.0) | ||
Moderate | 66 (32.4) | 100 (49.0) | 99 (48.8) | 107 (52.4) | 87 (42.4) | 71 (35.2) | ||
High | 137 (67.2) | 101 (49.5) | 103 (50.7) | 96 (47.1) | 116 (56.6) | 129 (63.9) | ||
Serum lipids (mmol/L) | ||||||||
Total cholesterol | 5.10 ± 1.33 | 5.18 ± 1.31 | 5.28 ± 1.30 | 0.16 | 5.13 ± 1.31 | 5.34 ± 1.37 | 5.10 ± 1.25 | 0.81 |
LDL-C | 2.92 ± 1.16 | 3.01 ± 1.14 | 3.15 ± 1.08 | 0.047 | 2.87 ± 1.08 | 3.15 ± 1.18 | 3.06 ± 1.11 | 0.09 |
HDL-C | 1.60 ± 0.71 | 1.61 ± 0.60 | 1.55 ± 0.59 | 0.42 | 1.65 ± 0.72 | 1.60 ± 0.61 | 1.49 ± 0.56 | 0.012 |
Triglycerides | 1.06 (0.85–1.62) | 1.07 (0.82–1.69) | 1.20 (0.86–1.78) | 0.09 | 1.17 (0.86–1.85) | 1.15 (0.85–1.65) | 1.04 (0.80–1.53) | < 0.001 |
High sensitivity C-reactive protein (mg/L) | 3.9 (1.3–10.0) | 3.2 (1.0–9.5) | 3.8 (1.2–11.4) | 0.67 | 4.1 (1.4–14.0) | 3.6 (1.5–9.2) | 3.5 (0.9–8.8) | 0.014 |
Interleukin-6 (pg/mL) | 3.04 (1.58–7.29) | 3.00 (0.75–4.91) | 2.94 (0.75–5.54) | 0.13 | 4.50 (1.98–8.83) | 2.86 (0.76–5.12) | 2.09 (0.75–4.16) | 0.002 |
HIV-positive | 2 (1.0) | 0 (0) | 3 (1.4) | 0.38 | 2 (1.0) | 0 (0) | 3 (1.4) | 0.30 |
Dietary variablesc | ||||||||
Total energy intake (kJ/d) | 7413 ± 3265 | 7338 ± 2979 | 7319 ± 2846 | 0.75 | 7699 ± 3263 | 7282 ± 2920 | 7088 ± 2875 | 0.038 |
Carbohydrate | 62.7 ± 10.7 | 59.3 ± 7.4 | 54.3 ± 7.2 | < 0.001 | 57.8 ± 9.5 | 59.4 ± 9.2 | 59.1 ± 9.0 | 0.15 |
Protein | 11.4 ± 2.3 | 12.8 ± 2.1 | 13.1 ± 2.1 | < 0.001 | 12.0 ± 2.4 | 12.7 ± 2.2 | 12.7 ± 2.3 | 0.001 |
Total fat | 16.4 ± 6.1 | 24.6 ± 5.3 | 31.7 ± 6.9 | < 0.001 | 22.6 ± 9.0 | 24.0 ± 8.6 | 26.0 ± 8.3 | < 0.001 |
Saturated FA | 3.9 ± 2.4 | 6.2 ± 2.5 | 7.6 ± 2.9 | < 0.001 | 5.4 ± 2.8 | 5.9 ± 3.0 | 6.5 ± 3.1 | < 0.001 |
Monounsaturated FA | 3.8 ± 2.0 | 6.6 ± 2.4 | 8.9 ± 3.1 | < 0.001 | 5.8 ± 3.1 | 6.5 ± 3.4 | 7.0 ± 3.3 | < 0.001 |
Polyunsaturated FA | 4.3 ± 2.6 | 7.2 ± 1.1 | 10.6 ± 2.1 | < 0.001 | 7.1 ± 3.7 | 7.1 ± 3.0 | 7.9 ± 3.0 | 0.013 |
n-3 fatty acids (mg/d) | 221.1 (145.5–362.4) | 325.3 (209.8–497.2) | 391.5 (253.5–543.7) | < 0.001 | 296.0 (182.2–452.5) | 319.6 (207.5–487.2) | 319.9 (192.6–476.2) | 0.37 |
Trans-FA (g/d) | 0.09 (0.03–0.25) | 0.20 (0.08–0.48) | 0.33 (0.12–0.68) | < 0.001 | 0.18 (0.07–0.43) | 0.17 (0.06–0.48) | 0.19 (0.07–0.53) | 0.71 |
Total fiber (g/d) | 20.4 ± 9.0 | 21.1 ± 9.3 | 19.9 ± 9.1 | 0.55 | 20.3 ± 9.0 | 20.4 ± 8.6 | 20.6 ± 9.9 | 0.75 |
Dietary cholesterol (mg/d) | 90 (48–159) | 159 (99–268) | 204 (129–307) | < 0.001 | 151 (78–248) | 148 (90–246) | 143 (81–254) | 0.56 |
Alcohol use: yesd | 118 (55.9) | 84 (39.8) | 69 (32.7) | < 0.001 | 117 (55.4) | 88 (41.7) | 66 (31.3) | < 0.001 |
(g/d) | 4.6 (0–36.2) | 0 (0–11.6) | 0 (0–4.3) | < 0.001 | 2.9 (0–27.0) | 0 (0–8.6) | 0 (0–5.8) | < 0.001 |
Fatty acid composition | ||||||||
Arachidonic acid (20:4n-6), % | 13.5 ± 2.7 | 13.4 ± 2.5 | 13.7 ± 2.3 | 0.43 | 12.9 ± 2.9 | 14.1 ± 2.4 | 13.6 ± 2.0 | 0.011 |
Estimated D6D activity (20:3n-6/18:2n-6) | 0.200 ± 0.061 | 0.192 ± 0.055 | 0.187 ± 0.058 | 0.016 | 0.234 ± 0.053 | 0.196 ± 0.047 | 0.150 ± 0.040 | < 0.001 |