Study | Subject Characteristics | n-3 PUFA Source (~dose/day) | Study Design | Duration | Lipid Outcomes | Other Findings |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Average baseline TG, Total-C, LDL-C (mg/dL) | ||||||
Lara (2007) [31] | 16 males, 32 females | 125Â g of salmon (5.4Â g of n-3 PUFA) | Intervention (no placebo) | 4Â week intervention; 4Â week washout without fish | TG reduced 15Â % (sig) | Blood pressure reduced 4Â % (sig) |
Scottish | LDL-c reduced 7Â % | |||||
20–55 yrs old | ||||||
Adiponectin reduced | ||||||
(TG – 83, Total-C - 167, LDL-C - 92) | HDL-c elevated 5 % (sig) | |||||
Hallund (2010) [32] | 68 males | 150Â g of trout fed marine diet (3.4Â g n-3 PUFA) | Randomized, parallel arm trial | 8Â weeks | TG reduced 14Â % and 6Â % in participants consuming trout fed marine-based diet and trout fed a vegetable-based diet, respectively | Trout fed marine-based diet resulted in a reduction of blood pressure and CRP, compared to trout on vegetable diet |
Danish | ||||||
40–70 yrs old | ||||||
(TG – 102, Total-C - 189, LDL-C - 117) | Vs. | |||||
150Â g of trout fed vegetable diet (0.8Â g n-3 PUFA) | ||||||
Ambring (2004) [33] | 12 males, 10 females | Mediterranean diet (4.1Â g n-3 PUFA) | Randomized, cross-over trial | 4Â week on one diet, 4Â week washout, 4Â week on opposite diet | TG reduced 9Â % in the group receiving Mediterranean diet | Consumed fewer calories on Mediterranean vs. Swedish diet (1869 vs. 2090, respectively) |
Swedish | ||||||
Vs. | ||||||
30–51 yrs old | Swedish diet (2.3 g n-3 PUFA) | Switching from a Swedish diet to a Mediterranean diet reduced serum TG, Total-c and LDL-c by 17 %, 17 % and 23 %, respectively (sig) | ||||
(TG – 97, Total-C - 217, LDL-C - 139) | ||||||
Source of n-3 PUFA in both diets was oily fish | ||||||
Navas-Carretero (2009) [34] | 25 iron deficient females | Oily fish diet (2.8Â g n-3 PUFA) | Randomized, cross-over trial | 8Â weeks per diet | TG reduced 3.1Â % while on fish diet | TG and HDL-c increased by 7.9Â % and HDL-c by 1.2Â % while on red meat diet |
18–30 yrs old | ||||||
(TG – 60, Total-C - 173, LDL-C - 97) | Vs. | Total-c and LDL-c reduced 2.3 % and 7.5 %, respectively, while HDL-c increased by 7.2 %, while on fish diet (sig) | ||||
Red meat diet (1.3Â g n-3 PUFA) | ||||||
Baro (2003) [35] | 15 males, 15 females (low background daily fish intake) | 500 ml of n-3 PUFA enriched semi-skimmed milk (0.33 g EPA + DHA) | Intervention (no placebo, initial values vs. final) | 4 week run in on low fish diet, 8 weeks consuming enriched milk | Total-c and LDL-c decreased 6 and 16 % (sig) | Homocysteine and VCAM-1 decreased by 13 % and 16 %, respectively |
Spanish | ||||||
20–45 yrs old | ||||||
(TG – 108, Total-C - 176, LDL-C - 91) | ||||||
79 males | Bakery products supplemented with 33Â g of experimental fats: (a) 33Â g control fat; | Randomized, double blind parallel arm trial | 8Â weeks | TG reduced 26Â % from baseline in the n-3 PUFA group. Change was significantly greater than the TG reduction observed in the control group. | The n-3 PUFA diet resulted in a 3 beat/min reduction in heart rate of subject with a normal heart rate variability | |
Danish | ||||||
20–60 yrs old | ||||||
Vs. | HDL-c reduced in the group receiving soy oil compared to the control | |||||
(TG – 102, Total-C - 185, LDL-C - 116) | (b) 12 g fish oil (4 g n-3 PUFA); | |||||
Vs. | ||||||
(c) 33Â g soy oil (20Â g trans FA) | ||||||
Garcia-Alonso (2012) [36] | 18 females | 2 glasses of 250 ml n-3 PUFA-enriched tomato juice (500 mg EPA + DHA total) | Randomized, single blind, parallel arm trial | 2 weeks | No effect on lipid profile | Enriched juice reduced serum homocysteine, VCAM-1 and ICAM-1 levels (sig) |
Spanish | ||||||
35–55 yrs old | Vs. | |||||
(TG – 59, Total-C - 197, LDL-C - 113) | Placebo | |||||
Hamazaki (2003) [37] | 16 females, 25 males | 1 glass of 250Â ml Soybean milk enriched with: | Randomized, double blind placebo controlled trial | 12Â weeks | TG levels reduced 17Â % (sig) in the group receiving the n-3 PUFA enriched soybean milk (no changes observed in the olive oil enriched milk) | Â |
Japanese | ||||||
43–59 yrs old | Fish oil (0.6 g EPA + 0.26 g DHA) | |||||
(TG – 154, Total-C - 211, LDL-C - 127) | Vs. | LDL-c levels did not change, while total-c elevated in both groups by 2 % | ||||
Olive oil | ||||||
Coates (2009) [38] | 29 males | 200Â g portion of pork from pigs fed a diet fortified with n-3 (0.185Â g n-3 PUFA) | Randomized, double-blind, parallel arm, placebo controlled trial | 12Â weeks | TG levels reduced 27Â % in the group consuming the n-3 PUFA fortified pork compared to controls | The n-3 PUFA fortified pork diet resulted in an elevation of serum thromboxane production (sig compared to the control) |
25–65 yrs old | ||||||
(TG – 84) | ||||||
Stuglin (2005) [39] | 15 males | 3 flaxseed-enriched muffins (6.67Â g ALA total) | Intervention (no placebo, compared initial and final values) | 4Â weeks | TG elevated 41Â % (sig) | Â |
Canadian | ||||||
22–47 yrs old | ||||||
(TG – 124, Total-C - 172, LDL-C - 108) | ||||||
179 post-menopausal females | 2 slices of flaxseed bread (8.42 g ALA) | Randomized, double blind, placebo controlled, parallel arm trial | 12 months | Flaxseed-enriched bread raised the participants’ serum TG 3 % | Flaxseed bread reduced BMI from baseline values (sig) | |
French Canadian | ||||||
49–65 yrs old | Vs. | LDL-c reduced in the group receiving flaxseed bread compared to the placebo | ||||
(TG – 101, Total-C - 221, LDL-C - 134) | ||||||
2 slices of ground grain bread | ||||||
Patenaude (2009) [40] | Group 1–10 females, 10 males | 1 muffin, enriched with either: | Randomized, double blind, parallel arm trial | 4 weeks | Diet (A) decreased total-c, LDL-c and TG by 7 %, 12 % and 11 % respectively, in Group 1. In group 2, Diet A decreased total-c and LDL-c 2 % while elevating TG by 13 % | Group 2 receiving diet B) had reduction in platelet aggregation (sig.) |
18–29 yrs old | ||||||
(TG – 91, Total-C - 165, LDL-C - 78) | A) Ground flaxseed (6.5 g ALA) | |||||
Group 2–10 females, 10 males | Vs. | |||||
45–69 yrs old | ||||||
(TG – 81, Total-C - 181, LDL-C - 99) | B) Flaxseed oil (5.74 g of ALA) | Diet (B) decreased TG 20 % in Group 1, while elevating TG by 3.5 % in Group 2 | ||||
Minihane (2005) [41] | 19 males | n-3 PUFA-enriched cooking oil and margarine (2 g n-3 PUFA) with either: | Randomized, double blind, parallel arm trial | 6 weeks | A diet containing a moderate ratio of n-6:n-3 PUFA resulted in 3 % and 8 % reductions in total-c and LDL-c, respectively, while increasing HDL-c by 8 % (0.05 < p < 0.1) | Diet providing a moderate ratio of n-6:n-3 PUFA increased total n-3 PUFA within RBC |
Indian Asian (in the UK) | ||||||
35–70 yrs old | ||||||
Diet providing a high ratio of n-6:n-3 PUFA increased plasma insulin levels and the participant’s HOMA-IR index (sig) | ||||||
Moderate n-6:n-3 (15Â g n-6 PUFA) | ||||||
(TG – 140, Total-C - 192, LDL-C - 120) | ||||||
Vs. | ||||||
High n-6:n-3 (26Â g n-6 PUFA) | ||||||
Sofi (2013) [42] | 12 males, 8 females | Gilthead sea bream fillets (2.3Â g n-3 PUFA) fed either: Plant protein (2Â g n-6 PUFA) Vs. | Randomized, single blind, cross-over trial | 15Â day run in with no fish consumption, 10Â weeks on fishmeal fed fish followed by 10Â weeks on plant protein fed fish (or vice versa) | TG, total-c and LDL-c decreased 11.7Â %, 29.3Â % and 21.6Â %, respectively, in group first receiving fishmeal fed fish (sig). Values rebounded to normal following second dietary intervention | Group first receiving fishmeal fed fish experienced reductions in IL-6 and IL-8, and improvements in RBC filtrate rate |
Finish | ||||||
23–67 yrs old | ||||||
Group A: fish fed fishmeal followed by fish fed plant protein each for 10Â weeks | ||||||
(TG – 117, Total-C - 233, LDL-C - 152) | ||||||
Fishmeal (1Â g n-6 PUFA) | ||||||
The group initially receiving plant protein fed fish experienced reductions in cholesterol occurring 10Â weeks after subsequently fed fish fed fishmeal | ||||||
Group B: fish fed plant protein followed by fish fed fishmeal each for 10Â weeks | ||||||
(TG – 94, Total-C - 216, LDL-C - 139) |