Table 1 The effect of phytosterols and vegetable oils on plasma concentration of small dense low density lipoprotein (LDL), LDL particle number, and LDL particle size

Hernáez et al. 2015 [43]

Olive oil

25 mL/d raw LPCOO; 366 mg/kg or HPCOO; 2.7 mg/kg)

3 weeks

25 healthy volunteer men

NMR spectroscopy

HPCOO significantly reduced small LDL particles (− 15.3%), though LPCOO significantly increased small LDL particles (+ 13.6%), differences between groups were significant

Small dense LDL ↓

Sialvera et al. 2010 [44]

Phytosterols

4 g/day

2 months

108 metabolic syndrome patients

sLDL e EX

“SEIKEN”

Phytosterols supplementation significantly reduced small dense LDL levels (−3.9 mg/dl) in the intervention group compared with the control group

Small dense LDL ↓

Garoufi et al. 2014 [45]

Plant sterols

2 g/day

6–12 months

59 hypercholesterolemic and normal children (4.5–15.9 years)

kit (sLDL-EX “SEIKEN”

Plant sterols consumption considerably reduced sdLDL in the intervention group though levels remained higher than control group

Small dense LDL ↓

Kratz et al. 2002 [46]

Vegetable oils

Refined olive oil, rapeseed oil, sunflower oil

4 weeks

56 healthy adults

PAGE

In response to vegetable oils, LDL size significantly reduced (−0.36 nm) thought differences between groups were not significant. Furthermore, oil consumption did not significantly change LDL size variation

LDL particle size —

Banuls et al. 2015 [42]

IEB, SB

4.45 g/day

12 weeks

40 healthy adults

PAGE

IEB led to significant elevation in LDL particle size (0.13 nm) compared with baseline and with SB.

LDL particle size ↑

Shrestha et al. 2006 [48]

2007 [47]

Treatment cookies,

Placebo cookies

Treatment cookies; 7.68 g/d psyllium and 2.6 g/d plant sterols, or

Placebo cookies; 0 g psyllium and plant sterols

3 months

33 healthy adults

Nongradient, high-resolution PAGE and NMR

psyllium and plant sterols were reduced the medium-small LDL particles (− 18.9 ± 0.7 nmol/L), and considerably increased LDL mean size (+ 0.11 ± 0.04 nm) and LDL peak size (+ 0.2 ± 0.15 nm) in compared with placebo.

Medium-Small LDL particles ↓

LDL particle size ↑

Earnest et al. 2007 [49]

Phytosterol esters,

canola oil (placebo)

2.6 g/day

12 weeks

54 adults with LDL-C level ≥ 3.33 mmol/L

Relative migration of four plasma standards of known diameter was used to estimate LDL particle size. The estimated diameter for the major peak in each scan was identified as the LDL peak particle size

Proportion of LDL, mean and peak LDL particle sizes did not change in both groups.

LDL particle size —

Matvienko et al. 2002 [50]

Ground beef with phytosterols,

Control (ground beef alone)

2.7 g of phytosterols

4 weeks

34 men with elevated plasma TC and LDL cholesterol

Nondenaturing PAGE and NMR

No significant change in small LDL particle and LDL peak particle size. However, mean LDL particle number decreased than control.

Small dense LDL —

LDL particle size —

LDL particle number ↓

Theuwissen et al. 2009 [51]

Stanol supplementation

2.5 g/day of plant stanols

3 weeks

28 adults with elevated triacylglycerols

NMR by Liposcience

After stanol supplementation the number of total LDL particles decreased, but sdLDL particles did not significantly change compared with baseline.

Small dense LDL —

LDL particle number ↓

Utarwuthipong et al. 2009 [52]

SBO;

RBO;

PO;

mixture of (3:1) RBO/PO

20% of total energy as SBO;

20% of total energy as RBO;

20% of total energy as PO;

20% of total energy as mixture of (3:1) RBO/PO.

10 weeks

16 hypercholesterolemia women

Sequential ultracentrifugation technique

SBO and RBO/PO significantly reduced sdLDL-cholesterol level (− 10%) and (− 5%) respectively, though PO significantly increased sdLDL-cholesterol level (+ 5%) and RBO was not significantly varied, differences between groups were significant.

Small dense LDL ↓