Table 3 The effect of fruits on plasma concentration of small dense low density lipoprotein (LDL), LDL particle number, and LDL particle size
Author, Year | Intervention | Dose per day | Treatment duration | Subjects | Method of assessment | Main outcomes | Final effects of specific diet ingredients or nutraceuticals on LDL (number, size and concentration) |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Galletti et al. 2019 [84] | Armolipid Plus® (AP) | AP; berberine 500 mg, red yeast rice, monacolin K 3 mg and policosanol 10 mg | 24 weeks | 147 metabolic syndrome patients | Electrophoretic mobility | Significant elevations in sdLDL-C size (+ 1 Å) after taking AP tablet compared with baseline. | LDL particle size ↑ |
Wang et al. 2015 [76] | Avocado diet (AV) Lower-fat diet (LF) Moderate-fat diet (MF) | AV; fresh Hass avocado (136 g/d) or LF; 59% carbohydrate, 16% protein, 24% fat, 7% saturated fat or MF; 49% carbohydrate, 16% protein, 34% fat, 6% saturated fat | 5 weeks | 45 overweight or obese subjects with baseline LDL-C | NMR spectroscopy | LDL particle number (− 80.1 nmol/L), small dense LDL cholesterol (− 4.1 mg/dL) were significantly lower in AV diet compared with baseline. LDL particle size was reduced in all diets, LF (− 0.24 nm), MF (− 0.21 nm), and AV (− 0.12 nm) but compared with the LF diet, AV diet led to significant rise in LDL particle size (+ 0.12 nm). | Small dense LDL ↓ LDL particle number ↓ |
Park et al. 2018 [77] | Avocado (Half-A), Avocado (Whole-A), Control | Half-A; 68 g, Whole-A; 136 g, Control; 0 g | 6 h postprandial | 31 overweight or obese subjects | NMR | After consumed whole avocado, small dense LDL particles significantly reduced (36.8 nmol/l) in compared with control. | Small dense LDL ↓ |
Basu et al. 2010 [78] | Strawberries | 50 g freeze-dried strawberries or 3 cups fresh strawberries | 8 weeks | 27 subjects with metabolic syndrome | NMR | Strawberry supplementation led to significant reduction in concentration of small LDL particles (14%), this change was significant differences between control and intervention groups. LDL mean particle size was not significantly varied between two groups. | Small dense LDL ↓ LDL particle size — |
Basu et al. 2014 [79] | LD-FDS, LD-C, HD-FDS, HD-C | LD-FDS; 25 g/d strawberries, LD-C; 4 g fiber + 20 g cane sugar HD-FDS; 50 g/d strawberries, HD-C; 8 g fiber + 36 g cane sugar | 12 weeks | 60 subjects with elevated lipid profiles | NMR | HD-FDS diet significantly decreased small LDL particles (− 323 ± 16 nmol/l) compared with HD-C diet. Furthermore, the change was statistically significant compared to the LD-FDS. | Small dense LDL ↓ |
Zunino et al. 2011 [80] | Strawberry powder | 320 g/day frozen strawberries | 3 weeks | 20 obese subjects | NMR | LDL particle size significantly increased (+ 0.43 ± 0.08 nm) in intervention group in comparison to the control group. | LDL particle size ↑ |
Zunino et al. 2014 [81] | Grape powder | 46 g grape powder | 3 weeks | 24 obese subjects | NMR | Grape diets had no effect on small LDL and LDL size. | Small dense LDL — LDL particle size — |
Toth et al. 2016 [82] | Bergavit® | 150 mg/d of flavonoids, with 16% of neoeriocitrin, 47% of neohesperidin and 37% of naringin | 6 months | 80 subjects with moderate hypercholesterolemia | Gel electrophoresis | Bergavit supplementation significantly reduced small dense LDL-3, − 4, and 5 particles (− 38, − 53%, − 67%, respectively) than baseline. | Small dense LDL ↓ |
Gliozzi et al. 2014 [83] | BPF | 1300 mg/day | 120 days | 107 subjects with metabolic syndrome and NAFLD | NMR Spectroscopy | Small dense LDL particles significantly reduced (− 374 ± 7 nmol/l) after 120 days intervention than baseline. | Small dense LDL ↓ |