Author (Year) | Study/Method | Subjects | Age | Duration | Treatment | Results |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Campos et al. (1995) [80] | Randomized Crossover PAGGE UC | 43 males | Mean, 50 years (SD, ± 11) | 12 weeks | Each diet was consumed for 6 wk. Low-fat diet: 24.2% E fat (6% E SFA, 11.6% E MUFA, 4.3% E PUFA), 58.8% E CHO, 16.8% E PRO. High-fat diet: 45.2% E fat (18.1% E SFA, 12.4% E MUFA, 11.8% E PUFA), 39.2% E CHO, 16.3% E PRO. Calories, cholesterol, fiber, and P:S were kept constant. | ↓LDL-C (Low-fat diet) ↑mean peak LDL diameter ↓LDL peak density ↑large, buoyant LDL particle mass (LDL I and LDL II) ↓sdLDL particle mass (LDL III and LDL IV) (High-fat diet) |
Krauss et al. (1995) [77] | Randomized Crossover PAGGE UC | 105 males | 28 to 79 years mean, 48.9 (SD, ± 11.1) | 12 weeks | Each diet was consumed for 6 wk. Low-fat diet: 23.9% E fat (5.4% E SFA, 12.3% E MUFA, 4% E PUFA), 60% E CHO, 16.1% E PRO. High-fat diet: 46% E fat (18.3% E SFA, 12.4% E MUFA, 12.5% E PUFA), 38.6% E CHO, 16.2% E PRO. | ↓LDL-C (Low-fat diet) ↑large, buoyant LDL particle mass (LDL I and LDL II) ↓sdLDL particle mass (LDL III and LDL IV) (High-fat diet) Thirty-six subjects (about one-third) switched from pattern A (or intermediate pattern) to pattern B by following the low-fat diet. |
Carmena et al. (1996) [81] | Intervention PAGGE | 18 males | 30 to 69 years mean, 57.1 (SD, ± 17.2) | 6 weeks | The SFO diet was consumed for 3 wk., followed by 3 wk. on the OO diet. Sunflower seed oil (SFO) diet: 31% E fat (6.8% E SFA, 10.9% E MUFA, 13.3% E PUFA), 48% E CHO, 11% E PRO. Olive oil (OO) diet: 30.5% E fat (6.9% E SFA, 21.6% E MUFA, 4.7% E PUFA), 48% E CHO, 11% E PRO. Vitamin E, beta-carotene, and vitamin C were significantly higher in the SFO diet. | ↓LDL-C ↑LDL size (SFO diet compared to OO diet) |
Kasim-Karakas et al. (1997) [82] | Intervention PAGGE | 14 females | Mean, 61 years (SD, ± 11) | 4 months | Consumption of a “habitual diet”, followed by the intakes of a 31% fat diet for 4 wk., followed by the 24% fat diet for 6 wk., then the 14% fat diet for 6 wk. Habitual diet: 33% E fat (10% E SFA, 13% E MUFA, 8% E PUFA), 51% E CHO, 71 g PRO. 31% fat diet: 31% E fat (10% E SFA, 12% E MUFA, 9% E PUFA), 53% E CHO, 17% E PRO. 24% fat diet: 23% E fat (6% E SFA, 10% E MUFA, 7% E PUFA), 60% E CHO, 18% E PRO. 14% fat diet: 14% E fat (3% E SFA, 7% E MUFA, 4% E PUFA), 67% E CHO, 19% E PRO. | ↓LDL-C (14% fat diet) ↔LDL particle size (all diets compared) |
Clifton et al. (1998) [26] | Randomized Double-blind PAGGE | 54 males 51 females | Males: 30–66 years mean, 50 years (SD, ± 7.5) Females: 23–76 years mean, 51.1 years (SD, ± 9.5) | 8 weeks | Consumption of a “self-selected” low fat baseline diet for 2 wk., followed by the addition of a fat-containing (high fat phase) or fat free (low fat phase) liquid supplement to the baseline diet for 3 wk. each. Low fat baseline diet: 26.2% E fat (9% E SFA, 9% E MUFA, 5.4% E PUFA), 51.1% E CHO, 19.7% E PRO. Low fat phase: 20.7% E fat (7.5% E SFA, 7.1% E MUFA, 4.3% E PUFA), 59.3% E CHO, 20% E PRO. High fat phase: 35.7% E fat (14.9% E SFA, 12.1% E MUFA, 3.7% E PUFA), 46.3% E CHO, 18% E PRO. The high fat phase had significantly higher cholesterol (748 mg) compared to the low fat phase (182 mg) | ↑LDL-C (high fat phase compared to low fat phase) ↑smaller LDL particles (men compared to women, in both low fat and high fat phases) ↔LDL particle size (low fat compared to high fat phase) |
Dreon et al. (1998) [71] | Randomized Crossover PAGGE UC | 103 males | 28–79 years mean, 48.9 years (SD, ± 11.1) | 12 weeks | Consumption of each experimental diet for 6 wk. Low-fat diet: 24.2% E fat, 5.9% E SFA (0.1% E lauric acid, 0.3% E myristic acid, 3.7% E PA, 1.5% E SA), 11.8% E MUFA (11.7% E OA), 4.2% E PUFA (0.1% E AA, 0.3% E ALA, 3.9% E LA), 59% E CHO, 16.6% E PRO. High-fat diet: 45.5% E fat, 18.4% E SFA (0.5% E lauric acid, 2.3% E myristic acid, 4% E SA, 9% E PA), 12.5% E MUFA (11.7% E OA), 11.8% E PUFA (0.6% E ALA, 10.8% E LA), 38.8% E CHO, 16.3% E PRO. Significant differences in reported intakes of cholesterol, P:S, and fiber. | ↑LDL-C (High-fat diet) ↔plasma lipoproteins [SA, MUFA (and OA), PUFA (and LA)] ↑large LDL particle mass ↑LDL peak particle diameter (High-fat diet, high SFA, myristic and palmitic acids) ↓sdLDL mass (High-fat diet; total SFA; myristic acid) Dietary protein, carbohydrate, cholesterol, P:S, and fiber were not associated with plasma lipoproteins. |
Lagrost et al. (1999) [83] | Randomized PAGGE | 32 total 14 males 18 females | 20–60 years (mean, 41 years) | 23 weeks | Three different diets were consumed for 6 wk. each, with 2 to 3 wk. washout periods. Lauric acid diet: 41.5% E fat, 22.2% E SFA (10.6% E lauric acid, 4.2% E myristic acid, 5.9% E PA), 11% E MUFA (10.3% E OA), 4.6% E PUFA (4.4% E LA), 43.9% E CHO, 14.3% E PRO. Palmitic acid diet: 41% E fat, 18.9% E SFA (13.2% E PA, 2.2% E myristic acid, 1.9% E lauric acid), 11.4% E MUFA (10.6% E OA), 4.6% E PUFA (4.4% E LA), 44.7% E CHO, 14.3% E PRO. Oleic acid diet: 41.8% E fat, 11.8% E SFA (5.7% E PA, 2.5% E lauric acid, 1.9% E myristic acid), 19.9% E MUFA (19% E OA), 5.4% E PUFA (5.2% E LA), 44.3% E CHO, 14% E PRO. Nutrient compositions were similar for each diet, except about 8.5% E was supplied by lauric (+ 2.2% E myristic acid), palmitic, or oleic acids. | ↓LDL-C (Oleic acid diet compared to lauric acid and palmitic acid diets). There were no significant differences between lauric acid and palmitic acid diets. ↔LDL particle mean size (all diets compared) |
Dreon et al. (1999) [84] | Randomized Crossover PAGGE UC | 38 males | 32–71 years mean, 52.5 years (SD, ± 12.1) | 20 days | Participants displayed phenotype A by following both a low- and high-fat diet for 4–6 wk. in a previous study. Consumption of their usual diet and very-low-fat diet for 10 d each. Usual diet: 31.8% E fat (10.8% E SFA, 11.8% E MUFA, 6.9% E PUFA), 52.1% E CHO, 14% E PRO. 10%-Fat diet: 10.4% E fat (2.7% E SFA, 3.7% E MUFA, 2.6% E PUFA), 75.7% E CHO, 14.5% E PRO. | ↓LDL-C ↓mass larger LDL-I ↑mass smaller LDL-III and LDL-IV subfractions ↓LDL particle size ↓LDL peak diameter (10%-Fat diet compared to usual diet) Twelve individuals (about one-third) converted to phenotype B, whereas 26 remained phenotype A. |
Pedersen et al. (2000) [27] | Randomized Double-blind Crossover UC | 18 males | 20–28 years (mean, 24 years) | Up to 33 weeks | Three identical diets were consumed for 3 wk. each (5–12 wk. washout periods), except that 19% E was from either extra virgin olive oil, physically refined rapeseed oil, or chemically refined sunflower oil. Olive oil (OO) diet: 35% E fat (11% E SFA, 21% E MUFA, 3% E PUFA), 53% E CHO, 12% E PRO. Rapeseed oil (RO) diet: 35% E fat (9% E SFA, 18% E MUFA, 7% E PUFA), 52% E CHO, 13% E PRO. Sunflower oil (SO) diet: 35% E fat (10% E SFA, 9% E MUFA, 15% E PUFA), 53% E CHO, 12% E PRO. OO diet contained significantly more squalene and less campesterol and sitosterol compared to RO and SO diets. | ↓LDL-C (RO and SO diets compared to OO diet) ↔LDL subfraction average size (all diets compared) ↑number of larger and medium-sized LDL subfractions (LDL-1 to LDL-3) (OO diet compared to RO and SO diets) ↑number of medium-sized and sdLDL subfractions (LDL-4 to LDL-5) (OO diet compared to RO diet) ↔number of smallest, dense LDL particles (LDL-6) (all diets compared) |
Kratz et al. (2002) [85] | Randomized Parallel PAGGE | 56 total 30 males 26 females | 18 to 43 years (69 initial participants) mean, 25.8 years (SD, ± 5.5) | 6 weeks | Baseline diet rich in SFA was consumed for 2 wk., followed by participants assigned to one of three treatment diets for 4 wk. Baseline diet: 38% E fat (19% E SFA, 11.2% E MUFA, 5.2% E n-6 PUFA, 0.4% E n-3 PUFA, 45.1% E CHO, 16.9% E PRO. Refined olive oil diet: 38.7% E fat (10.7% E SFA, 23.2% E MUFA, 3% E n-6 PUFA, 0.4% E n-3 PUFA, 47% E CHO, 14.3% E PRO. Rapeseed oil diet: 38.4% E fat (9.1% E SFA, 19.1% E MUFA, 6.5% E n-6 PUFA, 2.5% E n-3 PUFA, 47.3% E CHO, 14.3% E PRO. Sunflower oil diet: 38.3% E fat (10% E SFA, 8.7% E MUFA, 18.2% E n-6 PUFA, 0.3% E n-3 PUFA, 47.6% E CHO, 14.2% E PRO. The diets were identical, save for fatty acid composition. | ↓LDL size ↓LDL peak particle diameter (all 3 diets compared to baseline diet) ↔LDL size (all 3 treatment diets compared) |
Sharman et al. (2002) [33] | Intervention PAGE (nongradient) | 20 males | Ketogenic diet: mean, 36.7 years (SD, ± 11.6) Control diet: mean, 35 years (SD, ± 13) | 6 weeks | Twelve subjects switched from their usual dietary pattern to a ketogenic diet, whereas 8 subjects continued their usual dietary pattern (controls) for 6 wk. Ketogenic diet: 61% E fat (25% E SFA, 25% E MUFA, 11% E PUFA), 8% E CHO, 30% E PRO. Habitual diet: 25% E fat (12% E SFA, 9% E MUFA, 4% E PUFA), 59% E CHO, 15% E PRO. All nutrients were significantly different between diets, except for energy and alcohol consumption. | ↔LDL-C (both diets after 6 wk) ↑LDL peak particle diameter (ketogenic diet after 3 wk) ↑LDL-1 percentage (ketogenic diet) All 7 initial pattern A subjects remained pattern A after the ketogenic diet (no significant changes in percentages of any LDL subclasses, or the mean and peak LDL particle size). Most initial pattern B subjects (3 out of 5) changed to pattern A after the ketogenic diet. |
Rivellese et al. (2003) [86] | Randomized PAGGE UC | 162 total 86 males 76 females | 30–65 years SFA diet: mean, 48 years (SD, ± 8) (n-3 group) and mean, 49 years (SD, ± 7) (placebo) MUFA diet: mean, 49 years (SD, ± 7) (n-3 group and placebo) | 90 days | Consumption of a diet high in SFA or MUFA, followed by a second random assignment to capsule supplements of fish oil (3.6 g n-3 FA, containing 2.4 g EPA and DHA) or placebo capsules (with same amount of olive oil). The test period was preceded by a 2 wk. “stabilisation period” on their “habitual” diets and placebo capsules. SFA diet: 37.1% E fat (17.6% E SFA, 13.1% E MUFA, 4.7% E PUFA), 44.1% E CHO, 15.2% E PRO. MUFA diet: 37.1% E fat (9.6% E SFA, 21.2% E MUFA, 4.6% E PUFA), 45.9% E CHO, 14.8% E PRO. | ↑LDL-C (SFA diet compared to MUFA diet) ↑LDL-C (n-3 supplementation in both diets) ↔LDL size (all diets compared) |
Archer et al. (2003) [87] | Randomized PAGGE | 65 males | Mean, 37.5 years (SD, ± 11.2) | 6–7 weeks | Subjects consumed one of the diets for 6–7 wk. in an ad libitum manner. Low fat, high CHO diet: 25.8% E fat (6% E SFA, 13.3% E MUFA, 5.1% E PUFA. 58.3% E CHO, 15.9% E PRO. High MUFA diet: 40.1% E fat (8.2% E SFA, 22.5% E MUFA, 7.6% E PUFA, 44.7% E CHO, 15.2% E PRO. | ↓LDL-C (both diets; no significant difference between diets) ↓LDL peak particle diameter (High CHO diet; in subjects with large LDL peak particle diameters at baseline) ↑percentage of small LDL particles (High CHO diet; no significant difference between diets) |
Smith et al. (2003) [88] | Randomized Single-blind Parallel UC | 51 total 26 males 25 females | 18–28 years Moderate MUFA diet: Males: mean, 21 years (SD, ± 3) Females: mean, 20 (SD, ± 1) High MUFA diet: Males: mean, 20 years (SD, ± 2) Females: mean, 20 years (SD, ± 2) | 24 weeks | Consumption of a SFA-rich reference diet for 8 wk., followed by either a moderate- or high-MUFA diet for 16 wk. SFA reference diet (one for each MUFA diet): 39.8% E/37.7% E fat (15.4% E/14.5% E SFA, 12.5% E/11.9% E MUFA, 7.3% E/6.7% E PUFA, 47.9% E/50% E CHO, 10.5% E/10.7% E PRO Moderate-MUFA diet: 39.7% E fat (12.1% E SFA, 15.1% E MUFA, 7.2% E PUFA), 47.7% E CHO, 11.2% E PRO High-MUFA diet: 37.1% E fat (9.7% E SFA, 16.6% E MUFA, 6.9% E PUFA, 50.3% E CHO, 11% E PRO MUFA intakes were not significantly different between the two MUFA diets. MUFA intakes were significantly higher and SFA intakes were significantly lower than the reference diets. | ↓LDL-C (moderate- and high-MUFA diets compared to baseline, after SFA reference diet) ↑LDL-1 percentage (moderate-MUFA diet compared to SFA reference diet) ↔proportions of LDL subfractions (between each diet) |
Volek et al. (2003) [89] | Randomized Crossover PAGE (nongradient) | 10 females | Mean, 26.3 years (SD, ± 6.1) | 12 weeks | Each diet was consumed for 4 wk., with a 4 wk. break between diets. Very low CHO diet: 60% E, 118 g fat (41 g SFA, 35 g MUFA, 20 g PUFA), 10% E CHO (43 g), 29% E PRO (128 g). Low fat diet: 19% E, 34 g fat (10 g SFA, 9 g MUFA, 6 g PUFA), 62% E CHO (249 g), 17% E PRO (68 g). | ↑LDL-C (very low CHO diet compared to baseline and low fat diet) ↔relative percentages or concentrations of LDL subclasses (after consumption of each diet) Three of ten participants with pattern B displayed larger peak LDL size after following the very low CHO diet. |
Goyens et al. (2005) [78] | Randomized Double-blind Parallel NMR | 54 total 21 males 33 females 29 total (NMR analyses) 14 males 15 females | Males: mean, 52.6 years (SD, ± 13.7) Females: mean, 47.7 years (SD, ± 11.1) | 10 weeks | A 4 wk. period, followed by consumption of one of the following diets for 6 wk. Control diet: 33.5% E fat (11.6% E SFA, 12.8% E MUFA, 8% E PUFA, 7.3% E LA and 0.4% E ALA), 50.5% E CHO, 14.5% E PRO. Low-LA diet: 34% E fat (12.4% E SFA, 16.9% E MUFA, 3.7% E PUFA, 3% E LA, 0.4% E ALA, 49.8% E CHO, 14.9% E PRO. High-ALA diet: 32.6% E fat (10.4% E SFA, 12.6% E MUFA, 8.6% E PUFA, 7.1% E LA, 1.1% E ALA, 50.4% E CHO, 15.5% E PRO. | ↓LDL-C (High-ALA diet compared to control diet) ↔mean LDL particle size (all groups compared) |
Thijssen et al. (2005) [90] | Randomized Crossover NMR | 45 total 18 males 27 females 22 total (NMR analyses) 9 males 13 females | 28–66 years mean, 51 years (SD, ± 10) | 17 weeks | Consumption of each diet for 5 wk., with a washout period of ≥1 wk. between diets. Stearic acid diet: 38.2% E fat, 18% E SFA (7.7% E SA), 12.9% E MUFA (6.8% E OA), 4.7% E PUFA (2.1% E LA, 0.2% E ALA), 45.8% E CHO, 14% E PRO. Oleic acid diet: 37.7% E fat, 11% E SFA (1.2% E SA), 19.1% E MUFA (13.1% E OA), 5% E PUFA (2.4% E LA, 0.2% E ALA), 46.3% E CHO, 14% E PRO. Linoleic acid diet: 38% E fat, 11.2% E SFA (1.2% E SA), 12.5% E MUFA (6.6% E OA), 11.8% E PUFA (9.3% E LA, 0.2% E ALA), 46.3% E CHO, 13.8% E PRO. The diets did not differ, save for the difference of 7% E from SA, OA, or LA. | ↔LDL-C ↔LDL particle size and subclass concentrations (all 3 diets compared) |
Faghihnia et al. (2010) [91] | Randomized Crossover PAGGE UC | 63 total 61 males 2 females | At least 20 years mean, 47.9 years (SD, ± 11.2) | 8 weeks | Each diet was consumed for 4 wk. High-fat low-carbohydrate diet: 40% E fat (13% E SFA, 11% E MUFA, 14% E PUFA), 45% E CHO, 15% E PRO. Low-fat high-carbohydrate diet: 20% E fat (5% E SFA, 10% E MUFA, 5% E PUFA), 65% E CHO, 15% E PRO. There were no differences in cholesterol and simple:complex CHO ratios. | ↓LDL-C ↓large and medium LDL particle concentrations ↑small and very small LDL particle concentrations ↓mean LDL peak particle diameter (Low-fat high-carbohydrate diet compared with the high-fat low-carbohydrate diet) |
Egert et al. (2011) [92] | Randomized Parallel PAGGE | 37 total 12 males 25 females | 18–34 years mean, 22.6 years (SD, ± 4.2) | 6 weeks | Consumption of a 2 wk. wash-in SFA-rich diet followed by consumption of one of the treatment diets for 4 wk. Wash-in SFA-rich diet: 40.8% E fat (18.1% E SFA, 13.1% E MUFA, 6.6% E n-6 PUFA, 1.1% E n-3 PUFA), 42.6% E CHO, 15.7% E PRO. Low-fat diet (MUFA-rich): 28.7% E fat (7.2% E SFA, 13.9% E MUFA, 5.3% E n-6 PUFA, 0.9% E n-3 PUFA), 54.4% E CHO, 15.6% E PRO. High-fat diet (MUFA-rich): 40.2% E fat (9.9% E SFA, 19.8% E MUFA, 7% E n-6 PUFA, 1.6% E n-3 PUFA), 43.1% E CHO, 15.6% E PRO. Both diets were isocaloric, rich in MUFA, with similar FA, CHO, cholesterol, fiber, and antioxidant proportions. | ↓LDL-C ↓LDL size of the major fraction (both diets compared to the wash-in SFA-rich diet; no significant difference between treatment diets) |
Mangravite et al. (2011) [79] | Randomized Crossover IM | 40 males | Mean, 45 years (SD, ± 15) | 13 weeks | Consumption of a baseline diet for 3 wk., followed by intakes of two intervention diets for 3 wk. each. There were 2 wk. washout periods after the baseline diet and between intervention diets. Baseline diet: 38% E fat (15% E SFA, 15% E MUFA, 6% E PUFA), 50% E CHO, 13% E PRO (no beef protein). Lower carbohydrate, high-saturated fat (LCHSF) diet: 38% E fat (15% E SFA, 15% E MUFA, 5% E PUFA), 31% E CHO, 31% E PRO (10% E beef protein). Lower carbohydrate, low-saturated fat (LCLSF) diet: 38% E fat (8% E SFA, 21% E MUFA, 6% E PUFA), 31% E CHO, 32% E PRO (11% E beef protein). | ↓LDL-C ↓total LDL ↓medium LDL concentrations (LCLSF diet compared to LCHSF and baseline diets) ↓small LDL concentrations (LCLSF diet compared to LCHSF diet) ↔large LDL ↔very small LDL ↔LDL peak diameter ↔LDL subclass phenotype (all diets compared) |
Faghihnia et al. (2012) [93] | Randomized Crossover UC | 14 males | 24–67 years mean, 44.5 years (SD, ± 14.4) | 11 weeks | Consumption of a baseline diet for 3 wk., followed by intakes of two experimental diets for 3 wk. each. There was a 2 wk. washout period between experimental diets. Baseline diet: 38% E fat (15% E SFA, 15% E MUFA, 6% E PUFA), 50% E CHO, 13% E PRO. Low CHO, high SFA diet: 38% E fat (15% E SFA, 15% E MUFA, 5% E PUFA), 31% E CHO, 31% E PRO (10% E beef protein). Low CHO, low SFA diet: 38% E fat (8% E SFA, 21% E MUFA, 6% E PUFA), 31% E CHO, 31% E PRO (11% E beef protein). | ↓LDL-C (low CHO, low SFA diet compared to low CHO, high SFA diet) ↑LDL total mass concentration ↑LDL subclass I (large), II (medium), and III (small) mass concentrations (low CHO, high SFA diet compared to low CHO, low SFA diet) ↔LDL subclass IV (very small) (compared to each diet) |
Guay et al. (2012) [94] | Randomized Double-blind Crossover PAGGE | 12 males | 18 to 50 years mean, 27.1 years (SD, ± 3.9) | 2 weeks plus 6 days | Consumption of two experimental diets for 3 d each, separated by a 2 wk. washout period. Low fat diet: 25% E fat (6% E SFA, 12% E MUFA, 4.9% E PUFA), 61.8% E CHO, 15% E PRO. High fat diet: 37% E fat (15% E SFA, 12.7% E MUFA, 4.3% E PUFA), 49.8% E CHO, 15% E PRO. The experimental diets consisted of the same calories, proteins, fiber, MUFA, and PUFA. | ↑LDL-C ↑LDL particle size ↔LDL peak particle diameter ↑percentage of large (not significant) and medium LDL particles ↓percentage of small LDL particles (High fat diet compared with low fat diet) |
Wang et al. (2015) [95] | Randomized Crossover NMR | 45 total 27 males 18 females | 21–70 years mean, 45 years (SD, ± 13.3) | 14 weeks | A 2 wk. intake of an average American diet, followed by dietary treatments for 5 wk. each. There was a 2 wk. “compliance break” between treatments. Average American diet (AAD): 34% E fat (13% E SFA, 12% E MUFA, 7% E PUFA), 51% E CHO, 16% E PRO. Lower-fat diet (LF): 24% E fat (7% E SFA, 11% E MUFA, 6% E PUFA), 59% E CHO, 16–17% E PRO. Moderate-fat diet (MF): 34% E fat (6% E SFA, 17% E MUFA, 9% E PUFA), 49% E CHO, 16–17% E PRO. Diets were designed to meet calorie needs. | ↓LDL-C ↓large LDL particle number ↓mean LDL particle size (LF and MF compared to AAD; no significant difference between LF and MF) ↓total LDL particle number (MF compared to LF; no significant difference compared to AAD) ↑small LDL particle number (LF and MF compared to AAD; there was also a significant increase with LF compared to MF) |
Dias et al. (2017) [96] | Randomized Parallel NMR | 26 total 11 males 15 females | 21–65 years (29 subjects recruited) SFA-rich diet: median, 32 years n-6 PUFA-rich diet: median, 28 years | 4 weeks plus 10 days | Consumption of 4 × 1 g fish oil capsules (100 mg EPA and 500 mg DHA each) for 4 wk., followed by one of the treatment diets for 10 d while consuming the fish oil capsules. SFA + LC n-3 PUFA diet: 38.8% E fat (50.4 g SFA/100 g, 34.6 g MUFA/100 g, 13.5 g PUFA/100 g, 9.1 g LA/100 g, 4 g LC n-3 PUFA/100 g), 37.6% E CHO, 17.8% E PRO. n-6 PUFA + LC n-3 PUFA diet: 38.6% E fat (25.4 g SFA/100 g, 32.3 g MUFA/100 g, 39.1 g PUFA/100 g, 34.5 g LA/100 g, 4.6 g LC n-3 PUFA/100 g), 34% E CHO, 21% E PRO. | ↓LDL-C ↓total LDL particle concentration ↓very large, medium-large, and small LDL particle concentrations (n-6 PUFA + LC n-3 PUFA diet compared to SFA + LC n-3 PUFA diet) |
Dias et al. (2017) [97] | Randomized Parallel NMR | 26 total 6 males 20 females | 18–65 years | 6 weeks | Diets were consumed for 6 wk. The diets contained 400 mg EPA and 2000 mg DHA. SFA-rich diet: 40.9% E fat (18.9% E SFA, 13.8% E MUFA, 4.4% E PUFA, 2.9% E LA, 1.13% E n-3 PUFA), 38.1% E CHO, 16.6% E PRO. n-6 PUFA-rich diet: 42.4% E fat (12.6% E SFA, 13.2% E MUFA, 14.4% E PUFA, 12.7% E LA, 1% E n-3 PUFA), 41.6% E CHO, 18.1% E PRO. | ↔LDL-C ↔LDL particle size concentrations (between diets) |
Ulven et al. (2019) [98] | Randomized Double-blind NMR | 99 total Control diet: 52 total 21 males 31 females Exp. diet: 47 total 20 males 27 females | 25–70 years Control diet: mean, 55.2 years (SD, ± 9.8) Exp. diet: mean, 53.6 years (SD, ± 9.7) | 10 weeks | A 2 wk. duration which consisted of the control food items, followed by the consumption of 1 of 2 intervention diets for 8 wk. Control diet: 42.8% E fat (18% E SFA, 15.4% E MUFA, 5.6% E PUFA), 36.6% E CHO, 15% E PRO. Experimental diet: 42.9% E fat (11.5% E SFA, 15.7% E MUFA, 12% E PUFA), 34.2% E CHO, 16.5% E PRO. There was a 6.5% E lower SFA and a 6.4% E higher PUFA in the experimental diet. PRO, CHO, and fiber intakes were also significantly different. | ↓LDL-C ↓Large, medium and small LDL particle concentrations (Experimental diet compared to control diet) |
Bergeron et al. (2019) [99] | Randomized Parallel (high or low SFA arm) Crossover IM | 113 total High-SFA arm: 62 total 27 males 35 females Low-SFA arm: 51 total 17 males 34 females | 21–65 years High-SFA arm: mean, 45 years (SD, ± 12) Low-SFA arm: mean, 42 years (SD, ± 13) | Up to 28 weeks | A 2 wk. baseline diet, followed by random assignment to a low-SFA (~ 7% E) or high-SFA (~ 14% E) arm. Within each SFA arm, 3 experimental diets were consumed for 4 wk. each, with a 2–7 wk. washout period between experimental diets. High-SFA arm: Red meat diet: 35% E fat (13% E SFA, 12% E MUFA, 5% E PUFA), 41% E CHO, 24% E PRO (11.5% E red meat). White meat diet: 34% E fat (14% E SFA, 13% E MUFA, 5% E PUFA), 42% E CHO, 24% E PRO (11.5% E white meat). Nonmeat diet: 35% E fat (14% E SFA, 12% E MUFA, 6% E PUFA), 41% E CHO, 24% E PRO (15.4% E vegetable protein). Low-SFA arm: Red meat diet: 35% E fat (8% E SFA, 21% E MUFA, 5% E PUFA), 39% E CHO, 26% E PRO (12.5% E red meat). White meat diet: 31% E fat (7% E SFA, 18% E MUFA, 6% E PUFA), 46% E CHO, 23% E PRO (11% E white meat). Nonmeat diet: 34% E fat (7% E SFA, 20% E MUFA, 5% E PUFA), 41% E CHO, 25% E PRO (16% E vegetable protein). | ↑LDL-C ↑large LDL particle concentrations (High SFA compared with low SFA, independent of protein source) ↔small- and medium-sized LDL particle concentrations (High SFA intake compared with low SFA intake) |
Buren et al. (2021) [100] | Randomized Crossover PAGGE | 17 females | 19–27 years median, 23.8 years | 23 weeks | Each diet was consumed for 4 wk., separated by a 15 wk. washout period. Ketogenic low-carbohydrate high-fat (LCHF) diet: 77% E fat (33% E SFA), 4% E CHO (not exceeding 25 g, excluding fiber), 19% E PRO. Control diet: 33% E fat, 44% E CHO, 19% E PRO. | ↑LDL-C ↑sdLDL-C ↑large,buoyant LDL-C (LCHF diet compared to control diet) |